Kugadzira mhangura. Unhu hwemhangura

Malleability akadana susceptibility chainge chakagadzirwa nesimbi uye alloys kuti nokuchengetedza nedzimwe mhando dzvinyiriro kurapwa. Izvi zvinogona kuva kudhirowa, tsika, achifinyamisa kana kudzvanya. mhangura malleability It dzinoratidzwa kwete chete deformation nemishonga, asiwo moldability. Chii plasticity? Mano ichi simbi kushandura contours ayo pasi kumanikidzwa pasina nokuputsa. Nyore kufurirwa nesimbi zvinosanganisira ndarira, simbi, duralumin nezvimwe vamwe mhangura, magnesium, nickel, aruminiyamu alloys. Kuti vane dzakakwirira azvipire plasticity unobatanidzwa ane yakaderera kuramba deformation.

mhangura

Zvinofadza sokunge chinoratidza mhangura? Zvinozivikanwa kuti chiri chinhu boka 11 4 nguva D. zvine maatomu akafanana I. Mendeleeva. atomu Its ane 29 makamuri uye runotaurwa ne chiratidzo cú. Kutaura zvazviri, izvi Transitional chesimbi Plastic vaaleanpunainen uye yendarama mashava. Nenzira, ine blue ruvara, kana oxide firimu vasipo. Kubvira munguva dzekare, maatomu akafanana izvi rinoshandiswa nevanhu.

nyaya

Mumwe nesimbi rokutanga kuti vanhu vakatanga vachishingaira kushandisa upfumi hwayo, imhangura. Zvechokwadi, zvakare ichiwanika nokuda chionekeso kubva mhangura uye ane pasi utsotso pfungwa. Kwenguva yakareba zvave kuzivikanwa kuti vanhu nesimbi Seven, izvo zvinosanganisira nemhangura. Zvakasikwa, maatomu akafanana izvi zvinozivikanwa kupfuura sirivha, ndarama kana simbi. zvinhu Ancient hwemhangura gang, muri testamendi wayo simbi pakati ores. Vakanga akawanikwa Pavaichera yacho kugarwa Çatalhöyük. Zvinozivikanwa kuti Copper Age vakanga chaizvo zvinhu zvemhangura. anotevera ibwe munhoroondo yenyika.

S. A. Semonov vashandi aiitisa zvidzidzo zvokuongorora kuti akawana kuti Ezvemutauro mhangura tichienzanisa ibwe vanobatsirwa nenzira dzakawanda. Vane yepamusoro kumhanya planing, kuchera, kucheka sawing huni. A Mabatirwo pfupa mhangura banga rinovapo sezvo zvikuru, uye ibwe. Asi mhangura sechinhu nyoro simbi.

Kakawanda, kare Rakashandiswsa pachinzvimbo mhangura chiwanikwa pamwe gaba - nendarira. Zvakanga zvakakodzera kuti kugadzirwa kwezvombo uye zvimwe zvinhu. Saka, yokutsiva Copper Age akauya hwendarira. Bronze kokutanga yakagamuchirwa kuMiddle East kwemakore 3000 BC. E:. vanhu vakaita simba uye rakaisvonaka ductility nemhangura. Kubva zvichiguma yendarira akaenda makuru zvishandiso uye kuvhima, nezvirongo, zvemaoresa. All zvinhu izvi inowanika matongo Zvakafukunurwa. Uyezve, Bronze Age akasvimha simbi.

Sei yemhangura aigona kare? Pakutanga, hazvina zvikaramba kubva sulfide uye kubva malachite mhangura. Zvechokwadi, muchiitiko ichi, kuti vanoita rokutanga vachiridzira haana zvakakodzera. Nokuti ichi mhangura uye marasha muvhenganiswa raiiswa muhari yevhu. Mudziyo wakaiswa mugomba kudzika uye musanganiswa iri dzakaparira. Next anotanga kubudisa carbon monoxide, izvo zvakaita kuti kudzorerwa malachite vakasununguka mhangura.

Zvinozivikanwa kuti muKupro mumireniyamu rechitatu BC dzakavakwa mumigodhi yendarira, iro rakanga raitwa simbi.

On nyika Russia uye pedyo inoti mumigodhi yendarira kunge yakabuda pamusoro zviviri zvamakore BC. e. Matongo dzavo dziri Urals, uye Ukraine, uye Caucasus, uye Altai, uye muna Siberia kure.

Industrial utsotso mhangura akanga kushandiswa muzana remakore namatatu. Uye regumi Cannon Yard yakavhurwa muMoscow. Ipapo dzendarira chakakandirwa pfuti kuti calibers siyana. Nakisisa uwandu hwemhangura yakanga yakawandisa mukugadzira kuti mabhero. Muna 1586, hwendarira chikakandirwa chevaux Cannon, muna 1735 - the chamber Bell muna 1782. The Bronze nowavatasvi akasikwa. Muna 752, tenzi yakabereka huru Big Buddha Statue mutemberi Todai-Ji Temple. Kazhinji, mazita mabasa ounyanzvi foundry zvacho hazviperi.

Mugore regumi namasere remakore vanhu vakaona magetsi. Panguva iyoyo yakakura yakawanda emhangura vakatanga kuenda nokuda kwezvifananidzo zvaAtemisi waya uye zvigadzirwa zvakafanana. Muzana remakore rechimakumi maviri, tambo zvakadzidza kuti aruminiyamu, asi mhangura zvemagetsi ouinjiniya akanga achiri kukosha kukuru.

Origin of zita

Uye munoziva kuti Cuprum - ndiro zita Latin zvemhangura, zvinobva nezita cheKupro? Panzira, muna Strabo mhangura vachinzi halkosom - guta Halkida musi Euboea nemhosva kwakabva zita. Most mazita echiGiriki mhangura uye ndarira zvinhu vakatora nzvimbo zviri kubva pashoko iri. Vari zvinowanzoshandiswa blacksmithing, pakati nokuchengetedza vachikanda zvigadzirwa. Dzimwe nguva anonzi mhangura Aes, izvo zvinoreva mhangura kana rangu.

The necheSalvic Shoko "mhangura" haina iziviswe Mabviro. Zvichida kare. Asi kazhinji rinowanikwa zvikuru yekare mabhuku Monuments of Russia. V. I. Abaev akafunga kuti shoko iri rinobva zita kunyika Media. Copper masayendisiti anonzi "Venus". Kare rainzi "Mars".

Aripiko mhangura zvakasikwa?

The goko rinonyomba (4,7-5,5) x 10 ^-3% mhangura (kurema). Rwizi mvura uye gungwa mvura zviri ndoda: 10 ^-7% uye 3 x 10 ^-7% (kurema) azvaitwa.

Zvakasikwa, zvamugere kakawanda yeimwe mhangura. The indasitiri anoshandisa CuFeS ₂ chalcopyrite inonzi mhangura pyrites, bornite cú ₅ Fes _4, chalcocite cú ₂ S. panguva vanhu kuwana nezvimwe zvicherwa emhangura cuprite Cũ ₂ O, cú azurite ₃ (CO _{3) 2} (OH) _2, cú malachite ₂ CO ₃ (OH) ₂ uye covellite Tikiko. Kakawanda, munhu kurema masumbu emhangura matani 400. Copper sulfides vari akaumba kunyanya svikiro-tembiricha hydrothermal mutsinga. Kazhinji sedimentary matombo vanogona kuwana deposits mhangura - shale uye mhangura sandstones. Chinonyanya anozivikanwa deposits vari Trans-Baikal Territory Udokan Zhezkazgan muKazakhstan, Mansfeld muGermany uye nectariferous nebhanire Central Africa. Other dhipoziti yaiva Chile (Kolyausi uye Escondida) akapfuma mhangura uye USA (Morensi).

Most pemhangura esimbi mined nenzira rakashama. Rine kubva 0.3 kusvika 1.0% mhangura.

mumuviri ehupfumi

Vaverengi vakawanda vanofarira rondedzero kwemhangura. Izvi mapurasitiki vaaleanpunainen uye yendarama simbi. On kwayo pamusoro mhepo pakarepo yakafukidzwa oxide firimu, izvo zvinopa nayo zvikuru dzvuku-yellow Hue imwe mhando. Sezvineiwo, dzakaonda firimu hwemhangura vane zvitema-uswa ruvara.

Osmium, necesium, mhangura nendarama ruvara zvakafanana ruvara, akasiyana nevamwe pfumbu kana sirivha simbi. Izvi ruvara mataurire inoratidza kuvapo Erekitironi kuchinja pakati wechina hafu-chiro uye akazadzwa nechetatu mabhomba orbitals. Pakati pavo pane imwe simba musiyano chaienzanirana wavelength yacho ruvara Orange. Chete kwava anokonzera chaiyo ruvara nendarama.

Chii chinonyanya zvinoshamisa hunhu mhangura? chinoumba simbi iyi chiso zvakatinakira cubic yekamuri, nenzvimbo boka Fm3m, a = 0,36150 nm, Z = 4.

A yakakurumbira zvikuru yemhangura yakakwirira zvemagetsi uye chafariz conductivity. Maererano kuitika kunhaka zviri pakati nesimbi panzvimbo yechipiri. Sezvineiwo, hofori mhangura ane ane tembiricha coefficient kurwisa uye yakafara tembiricha siyana iri anenge pasina zviratidzo zvayo. Copper anonzi diamagnetic.

Copper alloys vari akasiyana-siyana. Vanhu vakadzidza sangana ne zingi uye nendarira, nickel sirivha uye nickel uye vatungamirire Babbitt, ndarira uye gaba, uye dzimwe simbi.

isotopes emhangura

Copper ane mbiri akatsiga isotopes - ⁶³ Cũ uye ⁶⁵ cu, vane kuwanda 69,1 uye 30.9 mabhomba muzana azvaitwa. Kazhinji, pane anopfuura maviri gumi nevaviri isotopes asina kugadzikana. The chakarebesa-vaigara isotope ⁶⁷ Cũ ane hafu upenyu maawa 62.

Sei yemhangura?

Kugadzirwa mhangura chinhu chinofadza zvikuru kwacho. simbi iyi yakagadzirirwa kubvira ores emhangura uye zvicherwa. The inokosha nzira kugadzirira imhangura hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, uye electrolysis.

Funga pyrometallurgical nzira. Maererano nzira, mhangura sulfidic ores, akadai chalcopyrite, CuFeS _2. The chalcopyrite feedstock ndiyo 0,5-2,0% cú. Chokutanga, kwokutanga mhangura iri flotation. Zvadaro, oxidizing roasting nayo panguva tembiricha kuti 1400 inegumi. Uyezve Zvinopiwa Kuisa pfungwa pachinhu zvinopinda simbi kuti matte. Nokuti tichisunga simbi oxide ari uchanyangadika iri wakawedzera silica.

The zvichiguma silicate sezvo gang floats uye vakaparadzana. Nechepasi anoramba matte - sulphides chiwanikwa GAC ₂ S uye Fes. Uyezve, zvinoita unonyauka nokuda nzira Henry Bessemer. Kuti izvi zviitike, convert uchidururwa matte wakaumbwa. Ipapo mudziyo akanga kunatswa oxygen. A simbi sulfide, rakanga oxidized kuti oxide vachishandisa silica abviswa mutoo sechinhu silicate. Copper sulfide iri oxidized kuti mhangura oxide hakusi zvakazara, asi zvino airarama esimbi mhangura.

The mhoni mhangura vakawana mabhati 90,95% of simbi. Next, zviri pasi electrolytic okuchenesa. Sezvineiwo, electrolyte chinhu acidic mhinduro yemhangura sulfate.

Zvinonzi akaumba pamusoro cathode electrolytic mhangura iyo ine yakakwirira kakawanda vanenge 99,99%. Zvinhu zvakagadzirwa nemhangura anogadzirwa zvakasiyana chaizvo: waya, magetsi, alloys.

Hydrometallurgical nzira siyanei. Pane zvicherwa mhangura vanorambana zvazvichanyungudutswa sulfuric asidhi kana ammoniacal mhinduro. Kubva takagadzirira mvura bvikinyidza mhangura nesimbi simbi.

Chemical ehupfumi emhangura

In yeimwe emhangura kunoratidza mbiri oxidation inoti +1 uye +2. Chokutanga izvi unowanzonyengera disproportionate uye akatsiga chete ari insoluble yeimwe kana zvivako. Sezvineiwo, mhangura Hauoneki akakura.

The oxidation Mamiriro +2 itsige. Kuti anopa munyu rwebhuruu uye cyan. Paine ezvinhu anogona kugadzirira yeimwe ane mwero oxidation ose +3 uye +5 kunyange. The yokupedzisira unonyanyozivikanwa kuwanikwa munyu kupraboranovogo anion vakawana muna 1994.

mhangura kwakachena mhepo haina kushanduka. Izvi simba kuderedza mumiririri asingadi sei pamwe sanganisa hydrochloric asidhi uye mvura. Oxidized dzichiitika nitric uye sulfuric acids, halogens, okisijeni, uye "aqua regia", oxides vasiri simbi, chalcogens. Kana neshungu, izvozvo zvaanoita pamwe rehydrogen halides.

Kana mhepo uchiri munyoro, mhangura iri oxidized, pova inokosha mhangura carbonate (II). It zvaanoita nechiverengo inopisa uye kutonhora zvine sulfuric acid, anhydrous kupisa sulfuric acid.

With sanganisa hydrochloric iine acid mhangura zvaanoita mumamiriro pamberi okisijeni.

Analytical kemesitiri mhangura

Munhu wose anoziva kuti kemisitiri ichi. Copper ari mhinduro iri nyore kuona. Kuti aite izvi, mumwe Platinum waya inyorovese bvunzo mhinduro, uye ipapo wedzera mumwe Bunsen burner womoto. Kana mhangura ari mhinduro, murazvo chichange mavara rwegirini uye zvitema. Unofanira kuziva kuti;

• Kazhinji, uwandu mhangura zvakaneta acidic dambudziko kunoonekwa kuburikidza rehydrogen sulfide: zviri hwakakanyiwa fuma. Kazhinji, asi sulfide mhangura precipitates.
• In iwayo zvingaitwa apo pasina apindire ions, mhangura kuona complexometric, potentiometric kana potentiometrically.
• uwandu mhangura mhinduro Small kunoyerwa spectral uye kinetic nzira.

Kushandiswa emhangura

Bvumiranai kudzidza Copper chinhu kunakidza chaizvo chinhu. Saka, zvinoshingaira simbi ane yakaderera resistivity. Nokuda uhwu mhangura yaishandiswa pagadzirwe zvemagetsi simba nezvimwe netambo, waya nezvimwe conductors. Copper waya rinoshandiswa windings simba transformers uye dzemagetsi Zvifambiso. Kusika nyaya yambotaurwa simbi vakasarudzwa chaizvo yakachena, sezvo nouipi pakarepo kuderedza magetsi conductivity. Kana mhangura kuripo muna 0.02% kubva aruminiyamu, ayo zvemagetsi conductivity kutapudzwa kubudikidza 10%.

Chimwe chinobatsira chinokosha ndiko kwazvo chafariz conductivity hwemhangura. Nokuda pfuma iyi rinoshandiswa nenzira dzakasiyana-siyana kupisa exchangers, zvikwepa kupisa, teplootvodnyh mano uye kombiyuta No.

Uye kupi kwekuoma kwemhangura kushandiswa? Zvinozivikanwa kuti musono mhangura chubhu ine dzeraundi muchinjikwa chikamu vane kwazvo zvokuimba simba. Vane zvakanaka kukunda zvokuimba kukurukurwa uye zvinoshandiswa kutama mvura uye magasi. Kazhinji, vanogona kuwanikwa womukati gasi romugove uye mvura enyika, kudziyisa hurongwa. Vari zvinowanzoshandiswa Refrigeration dzakabatana uye mhepo kutonhodza enyika.

Excellent kwekuoma mhangura vanozivikanwa munyika dzakawanda. Saka, muna France, UK uye Australia, zvikwepa emhangura rakashandiswa gasi wedzerai zvivako muSweden - nokuti kudziyisa, muna US, UK uye Hong Kong - Nde zvinhu nokuda mvura.

MuRussia, kugadzirwa nemvura gasi yemhangura sepombi normalized mureza GOST R 52318-2005 uye Federal Code of Practice SP 40-108-2004 inodzora kushandisa kwavo. Zvikwepa zvakagadzirwa nemhangura uye alloys ayo zvinowanzoshandiswa simba engineering shipbuilding kutama hwemvura uye mvura.

Maiziva here kuti alloys mhangura zvinoshandiswa zvakasiyana minda zvigadzirwa? Ava, zvikuru nomukurumbira inokurukurwa kuti dzendarira nendarira. Both alloys zvinosanganisira mhuri kwazvo nezvinhu, izvo, kunze zingi uye netini, zvingasanganisira bismuth, nickel nedzimwe simbi. Somuenzaniso, gunmetal rinoshandiswa kusvikira rechigumi nemapfumbamwe remakore nokuda kwezvifananidzo zvaAtemisi atirari anoshongwa, rinoumbwa mhangura, tini uye zinc. Pfungwa dzacho dzaisiyana zvichienderana nenzvimbo uye nguva gadzira pfuti.

Munhu wose anoziva rakaisvonaka processability uye yakakwirira ductility nemhangura. Nokuda ehupfumi ava incredible uwandu wendarira anoenda pagadzirwe dzisimbe nokuti maoko uye atirari zvombo. Zvinokosha kucherechedza kuti zvikamu zviri zvemhangura-nesilicon alloys, zingi, tini, aruminiyamu uye nezvimwewo. Copper alloys vanoonekwa ne mukuru simba uye chafariz kubudiswa kuramba kwavo zvemaziso ehupfumi. Dzavo kusakara kuramba akatsunga bedzi makemikari anoumba uye rawo chacho. Zvinofanira kucherechedzwa kuti mutemo uyu hairevi beryllium mhangura uye vamwe aruminiyamu bronzes.

Copper alloys vane modulus pamusoro elasticity akaderera kupfuura simbi. chikuru mukana wavo anogona kunzi chiduku kukweshera coefficient, kukabatanidzwa nokuti alloys vakawanda dzakakwirira ductility, chakanakisisa zvemagetsi conductivity uye kwazvo ngura nemishonga iri kungatikanganisa ezvinhu. Kazhinji, zviri zvendarira, aruminiyamu uye mhangura-nickel alloys. Sezvineiwo, vakaona kushanda kwavo yegwara zvishoma nezvishoma mumatope.

Zvinenge alloys zvose mhangura zvakafanana kwakakura mvongamupopoto coefficient. Zvisinei, kuti vapfeke kuzvidzivirira uye zvemaziso zvivako, maitiro ari kungatikanganisa runyararo iri zvakananga novimba chiwanikwa sezvamunoita. The ductility yemhangura rinoshandiswa chete-danho alloys, uye simba - mune maitikiro maviri. Melchior (coppernickel chiwanikwa) rinoshandiswa nokuti dzava kugadzira mari. Copper-nickel alloys, kusanganisira "admiralty", rakashandiswa shipbuilding. Vakaita sepombi nokuda condensers, kuchenesa turbine chiutsi chiutsi. Zvinokosha kucherechedza kuti turbines vari haachandidi ne mvura yomugungwa. Copper-nickel alloys vane zvinoshamisa ngura nemishonga, saka avanotarisira kushandisa munzvimbo chokuita vanotyaira simba mvura mugungwa.

Kutaura zvazviri, mhangura ndiye chikuru chezvinonhuwira yakasimba solders - alloys une utsotso zvokusvika 590 kusvika 880 Celsius. It tinoberekwa kwavari adhesion guru nesimbi yakawanda, kuitira kuti vapinde zvachose kubatana-siyana simbi. Izvi zvingava mutopota Fittings kana Urume ndege michini, yakagadzirwa dissimilar simbi.

Zvino nyora alloys umo mhangura ductility kunokosha. Duralumin kana Duralumin ndiye aruminiyamu chiwanikwa uye mhangura. Pano, mhangura iri 4.4%. Alloys emhangura nendarama rinowanzoshandiswa zvishongo. Ndivo zvakakodzera kuvandudza simba chigadzirwa. Pashure pezvose, yakaisvonaka - zvikuru nyoro simbi, zvisingagone kuva nemishonga zvokuimba kushushikana. Products zvakagadzirwa negoridhe rakaisvonaka kukurumidza akaremara uye abraded.

Sezvineiwo, nokuti kusikwa ane oxide kuti oxides yttrium-barium-mhangura, ndarira inoshandiswa. Iye anoshanda sehwaro pagadzirwe mukuru-tembiricha superconductors. Copper rinoshandiswawo nokuda kugadzirwa mabhatiri uye mhangura-oxide electrochemical masero.

Dzimwe nzvimbo chikumbiro

Maiziva here kuti mhangura chaizvo inowanzoshandiswa anowedzera kuti polymerization kuti acetylene? Nokuda pfuma iyi mhangura muridzo unoridzirwa inoshandiswa tama acetylene vanobvumirwa kushandisa chete kana kugutsikana mhangura asingadi pfuura 64% wavo.

Vanhu vakadzidza kushandisa malleability mhangura mapurani. Pamadziro uye matenga akaita kubva matete chaizvo jira zvemhangura, muri dambudziko isina kwemakore 150. Fani iyi nyore akatsanangura: mu mahwendefa endarira kunoitika avtozatuhanie ngura rikurumidze. MuRussia, semucheka mhangura pamadziro uye matenga maererano zvokudya pamusoro Federal Code yemirau SP 31-116-2006.

Munguva yemberi iri pedyo vanhu kuzoshandisa mhangura somunhu microbicidal hukawanika mune makiriniki yokudzivisa kufamba mabhakitiriya vanosvuta. hukawanika zvose kuti anobata ruoko rwomunhu, - mukova Pazvibato, handrails, vodozapornaya Fixtures, countertops, mibhedha - unyanzvi ichabereka chete kubva ichi chinoshamisa simbi.

chokuguma mhangura

Ndoupi muchiso hwemhangura inoshandisa vanhu kuti pagadzirwe zvakafanira zvigadzirwa? Ndivo yakawanda: M00, M0, M1, M2, M3. Kazhinji, asi zvizivikanwe akaratidza mhangura kuchena kwayo kugutsikana.

Somuenzaniso, mamakisi mhangura M1r, M2P uye M3R rine 0,04% phosphorus uye 0.01% okisijeni, uye mavanga M1, M2 uye M3 - 0.05-0.08% oxygen. The chitambi M0b okisijeni vasipo, uye ayo kubva muzana kugutsikana yakanga 0.02% muna MO.

Saka, isu funga muudzame yemhangura. Table, akakanda pamusoro, achapa mashoko neyakarurama:

Brand mhangura	M00	M0	M0b	M1	M1r	M2	M2P	M3	M3R	M4
pauwandu hweavo gutsikana mhangura	99,99	99,95	99,97	99,90	99,70	99,70	99,50	99,50	99,50	99,00

27 mamakisi emhangura

In zvachose pane makumi maviri-nomwe mamakisi zvemhangura. Where chaizvoizvo uwandu zvinhu mhangura kushandisa munhu? Funga izvi nuance zvizere:

• Bv-DPH zvinhu rinoshandiswa nokuda kwezvifananidzo zvaAtemisi Fittings zvaida kuti maererano nokuda pombi.
• AMP anodiwa kusikwa hot-akakungurutsirwa uye chando-akakungurusa anodes.
• Amphoux rakashandiswa pagadzirwe chando-akakungurutsirwa uye hot-akakungurusa anodes.
• M0 zvinodiwa kusika yakakwirira-kuitika conductors uye alloys.
• M00 Material rakashandiswa kugadzirwa mukuru-chiwanikwa uye iyezvino conductors.
• M001 rinoshandiswa nokuda kwezvifananidzo zvaAtemisi waya, matai uye mamwe magetsi zvigadzirwa.
• M001b zvakakodzera hwokubereka magetsi zvigadzirwa.
• M00b rinoshandiswa kusika mamiriro conductors mukuru alloys uye apparatuses yemagetsi Vacuum indasitiri.
• M00k - feedstock nokuda chisikwa akaremara uye vachikanda billets.
• M0b akashandisa kusika alloys dzakakwirira maitikiro.
• M0k rakashandiswa kugadzirwa chakakandirwa uye akaremara workpieces.
• M1 zvaidikanwa zvaAtemisi waya uye kugadzira kubva cryogenic michina.
• M16 rinoshandiswa kuti pagadzirwe yemagetsi Vacuum mano indasitiri.
• M1E anofanira kusika inotonhora-akakungurutsirwa foil uye tepi.
• M1k vanofanira kuumba Semi-rakapera zvigadzirwa.
• M1or kushandiswa mukugadzira waya nezvimwe magetsi zvigadzirwa.
• M1r kushandiswa mukugadzira electrodes inoshandiswa Welding simbi uye mhangura.
• M1rE zvaidikanwa pagadzirwe chando-akakungurutsirwa ubvise uye foil.
• M1u akashandisa kusika chando-akakungurutsirwa uye hot-akakungurusa anodes.
• M1f vanofanira kusika tepi, foil, hot-akakungurutsa uye chando-akakungurusa machira.
• M2 zvinoshandiswa kugadzira Semi-rapera uye dzakasimba alloys kunobva mhangura.
• M2K rakashandiswa pagadzirwe Semi-apera zvigadzirwa.
• M2P zvaidiwa mukugadzira tsvimbo.
• M3 inodiwa pagadzirwe yakanyikwa alloys.
• M3R kushandisa kuti ndokukungurusira alloys.
• MB-1 kunokosha kuti pakasikwa beryllium endarira.
• MSr1 akashandiswa zvaAtemisi magetsi mazano.